John Stuart Mill Essay Example for Free

John Stuart Mill Essay British philosopher, John Stuart Mill, served many years as a member of parliament and worked diligently to bring forth liberal ideas. Amongst these ideas was the distinction of utilitarianism, or the act of doing what is right for the greatest number of people. Yet, just discussing the idea of right versus wrong for the masses was not enough, Mill’s determined there were two forms of utilitarianism; act, the direct form, or sanction, the indirect form. Much like formal logic with deductive and inductive reasoning, act and sanction utilitarianism strive for the same goal but have different ways of reaching it. Both forms of utilitarianism are seeking to find the best possible outcome for the largest number of people and using that as a measure of right versus wrong, yet by examining the differences of act utilitarianism and sanction utilitarianism, it will become clear that sanction utilitarianism is superior and more easily attainable. Focusing on act utilitarianism, this direct form works in maxims, expanding the contrast between right and wrong. â€Å"An act is right and just in its consequences for human happiness are at least good as any alternative available to the agent† (9). Thus, it is your duty to do the optimal act in a situation because anything other than the best act is a wrong act. Furthermore, Mills also comments that it is considered a â€Å"righteous† act if the consequences are just as good or better than any other action. Staying within the ideas of right or wrong, or when decisions seem to commonly be referred to as â€Å"black or white,† there is also an ideal of proportions to consider. Remember that the act is right is if brings happiness to the most people, but one is incapable of pleasing every person in every situation. Thus, Mills refers to the â€Å"Proportionality Doctrine† to tell what makes an act right or wrong. The Proportionality Doctrine states that acts are right if they promote happiness, or acts are wrong if they promote sadness. In act utilitarianism, each person is held to a duty to always make the best choices and perform the best actions. What that does though is â€Å"imply that I do wrong every time I fail to do the very best action, even when the suboptimal act that I perform is a very good deed. That may seem harsh and overly demanding† (11). Act utilitarianism is very demanding, having to always do the best thing all the time. What direct, or act utilitarianism implies is that if you fail to do the most optimal act then what you did was wrong, which is not always the case. In contrast to act utilitarianism, sanction utilitarianism allows gray space in between the black and white ultimatums. Mill’s writes: â€Å"because it makes the rightness and wrongness of conduct depend upon the utility of sanctioning that conduct in some way, we might call it sanction utilitarianism† (11). Here, Mill’s almost accepts that there are situations that will never be distinguished as exactly right and exactly wrong. Yet, Mill’s also struggles to let got of act utilitarianism since there usually are only two options. Thus, indirectly, an act is right if and only if its optimal to apply sanctions to its omission, whereas applying sanctions is right if and only if it is optimal is a direct action. â€Å"The only difference is that whereas sanction utilitarianism ties rightness and wrongness to praise and blame, act utilitarianism does not† (12). There are four kind acts that fall under sanction utilitarianism: 1. Wrong of forbidden acts are those whose performance it is optimal to blame 2. Permissible acts are those whose performance it is not optimal to blame 3. Obligatory acts are those whose omission it is optimal to blame 4. Supererogatory acts are permissible acts that are especially expedient (11) Here, these four actions seem to take on new meanings: while of course forbidden acts are optimal to blame negative reactions on (they are forbidden for a reason), it is now possible to see that the blame has a purpose behind it since the act caused proportionally the most damage. Unlike act utilitarianism, sanction utilitarianism is clear about which acts are sanctioned and which ones are not. In comparison, both forms of utilitarianism tend to seek the best possible outcome for he highest number of people, yet they have varying degrees of severity. People feel that when it comes to act utilitarianism, if you are not doing the best action each end every second, then whatever else you do is considered wrong. Living with the constant fear that your every action is scrutinized leaves those who practice act utilitarianism demoralized and deflated. It is also exhausting to have to be doing the best thing all the time and society does not naturally possess the ability to be a â€Å"hero† every waking moment. It would seem that sanction utilitarianism is more probable because it promotes a more feel good way of life. Your actions are all driven by a desire to do the right thing, but if you fail from time to time, as long as the intention was there, you are doing all right. â€Å"In arguing sanction utilitarianism, Mill’s claims that it allows him to distinguish duty and expediency and claim that not all inexpedient acts are wrong; inexpedient acts are only wrong when it is good or optimal to sanction them† (11). This means that sanction utilitarianism is more preferable and attainable than act utilitarianism when it comes to acts of duty. Therefore, a person would see this flexibility in sanction utilitarianism as a way to be seeking the righteous actions while being less demanding than act utilitarianism. Sanction utilitarianism is a superior alternative to act utilitarianism because it is flexible, forgiving and attainable. Humans are one of the most imperfect species on the planet and with highly evolved social politics; it is completely impossible to please everyone at the same time. Take into consideration the very foundation of democracy, selecting the best candidate for the job based on a populous vote. If everyone were voting under the basis of selecting the best person for the most number of people, then they would all vote for the same person. There has never been an election where a single candidate won every vote, and thus it proves that humans are incapable of behaving under complete act utilitarianism. On the other hand, it is good to hold yourself to the highest standards and expect the most out of yourself and think that you should always be doing the best thing. The flexibility of sanction utilitarianism is that individual morals and ethics come into play for each person, allowing them to wander between right and wrong finding the best outcome that may be a blend of the two. Take for instance the selection of which college to go to: your personality, likes, dislikes and more come into consideration and while the student wants to find a reputable school, they also have to find a place to call home for four years. If the student chooses the wrong location, it makes their lives miserable, their roommate’s life unbearable, and the family’s life saddened. Thus, the student had to balance every option and maybe give in on reputation for the best social fit, whereas under act utilitarianism, they would have picked a school solely on reputation alone since theoretically, that would lead them to the best possible outcome. Also, under sanction utilitarianism, if a choice is made and it turns out to be wrong, a new choice can be made to counteract the first giving sanction utilitarianism a sense of forgiveness. Combining these two ideals, flexibility and forgiveness, sanction utilitarianism reins superior over act utilitarianism because it is attainable. While both forms of utilitarianism are seeking to find the best possible outcome for the largest number of people, through examining the differences of act utilitarianism and sanction utilitarianism, it became clear that sanction utilitarianism is superior through its attainable qualities. In act utilitarianism the path for right over wrong is very demanding, requiring someone to always do the best thing all of the time. Ultimately, what direct utilitarianism implies is that you fail when what you did was wrong, which may not always be the case. Unlike act utilitarianism, sanction utilitarianism is clear about which acts are sanctioned and which ones are not, which allows someone to strive for their best but not harm them if they fail. Sanction utilitarianism is more preferable and attainable than act utilitarianism when it comes to acts of duty because a person would see the flexibility in sanction utilitarianism as a way to be seeking the righteous actions while being less demanding than act utilitarianism. While humanity is incapable of following act utilitarianism, the forgiveness built into sanction utilitarianism is preferred, since if the choice made turns out to be wrong, a new choice can be made to counteract the first. Combining these two ideals, flexibility and forgiveness, sanction utilitarianism becomes attainable for humanity and it rises in superiority over act utilitarianism.

Social Work In Criminal Justice

Social Work In Criminal Justice This module will address the role of social work in the criminal justice context. This context includes a range of agencies working with adults and young persons who are involved in offending and agencies who work with the victims of crime. Social Work within the criminal justice context can therefore involve direct work with people who have offended, for example working as a Probation Officer or working in a voluntary sector organisation that provide services to people involved in the criminal justice system. It also involves working with children and families who may be involved in the criminal justice system or affected by crime. The module will cover the context and settings of social work in the criminal justice system, the principles, methods and interventions of working with offending behaviour; assessment in criminal justice contexts; the impact of crime and working with children and young people in the criminal justice system. A commitment to anti-oppressive practice underpins the module and students will be encouraged to critically think and evaluate their own practice and perspectives. The module runs in Semester One and consists of lectures which take place on Tuesdays from 22/09/09 to 27/10/09. Lectures will be held from 10am to 1pm every Tuesday and on alternate weeks there will also be lectures from 2pm to 4pm in the afternoon. Tutorials will take place on alternate Fridays, beginning on 25/09/09. Students will be divided into tutorial groups and tutorials will run from 12-1pm and 1pm to 2pm on alternate Fridays. Students will be notified of their assigned tutor group in due course. Students will be assessed for via a written assignment which is due for submission on: Monday 2nd November at 4pm. Module Aims Students will understand the social work role within a criminal Justice context, and develop their understanding of the knowledge, skill and value base pertinent to the area of practice. Learning Outcomes Students will understand policy and legislation that informs the social work role in this context. Students will learn the theoretical perspectives informing social work intervention in a criminal justice context. Students will explore the research and methods that inform social work intervention in the criminal justice context. Students will develop skills in the critical examination of theory and its application to practice. Students will understand their own value base in relation to this area and have considered ethical issues in relation to practice. Week 1 Introduction to Social Work and Criminal Justice history, context and settings Date: 22/09/09 Lecture: 10 1pm Nicola Carr Tutorial 25/09/09 (Group 1 (12-1) / Group 2 (1-2) Nicola Carr and Alan Harpur Week 2 Working with offending behaviour- Principles, Methods and Interventions Date: 29/09/09 Lecture: 10am -1pm Nicola Carr Lecture: 2pm -4pm Nicola Carr Week 3 Assessment in criminal justice contexts Date: 06/10/09 Lecture: 10am 1pm Nicola Carr Tutorial: 09/09/09 (Group 1 (12-1) / Group 2 (1-2) Nicola Carr and Alan Harpur Week 4 The impact of offending working with victims of crime and Restorative Justice approaches Date: 13/10/09 Lecture: 10am to 1pm Nicola Carr Lecture: 2pm to 4pm (Victim Panel Susan Reid, Victim Support, Northern Ireland and Christine Hunter, PBNI Victims Unit) Week 5 Public Protection, Prisons and Resettlement Date: 20/10/09 Lecture: 10am to 1pm (PPNAI, Willie McAuley; John Warren, Extern) Tutorial: 23/09/09 (Group 1 (12-1) / Group 2 (1-2) Week 6: Working with young people in the criminal justice system balancing welfare and justice? Date: 27/10/09 Lecture: 10am to 1pm Nicola Carr Lecture: 2pm to 4pm (Kelvin Doherty, Youth Justice Agency) Course Reading Recommended Texts A further extensive list of recommended reading is provided for each week of the course based on subject area. Assessment Assessment of this module is through a written assignment which is due for submission: Monday 2nd November by 4pm. You are required to submit one printed copy to Reception in 6 College Park and one electronic copy via My Modules on Queens Online before 4.00pm on Tues 5th Jan. Please refer to the following link on the Schools web site for submission procedures http://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/SchoolofSociologySocialPolicySocialWork/ImportantNotice/#d.en.93464 Students must answer one of the essay questions below and the word count for this assignment is: 2500 Words +/- 10% Essay Questions Restorative Justice aims to address the consequences of offending for victims and offenders and communities in a meaningful way. Critically evaluate this statement with reference to practice in the Northern Ireland criminal justice system. Young people who are involved in offending should be treated as ‘children first. Discuss this statement with reference to policy and practice in working with young people in the criminal justice system. The history of probation is one of an increased emphasis on public protection. Discuss this statement with reference to probation practice in Northern Ireland. Assessment of the risk of re-offending and risk of harm should guide the nature of intervention with offenders. Critically evaluate this statement with reference to theory, policy and practice. GUIDELINES This assignment should be based on learning from your lectures, workshops and guided study / reading .You are encouraged to start researching and preparing at an early stage as the submission date is A discussion forum will also be established on queens on-line in order to assist you to share ideas with tutors and other students and to seek to share resources for the assignment. REFERENCING Your assignment must be supported with references from relevant readings and you must follow the referencing guidelines relating to books, journals and web based material provided in your course handbook. You are encouraged to read widely in preparing for your assignment, drawing on material from your reading list as well as other relevant material. You should also look at the general assessment guidelines in your assessment handbook for more general assignment writing skills. Essay guidance The best way to structure the answer to a question is to begin with a very brief analysis of what you interpret the question as being about, and then a road-map of how you propose to answer it. This focuses your mind on organising a clear, coherent structure for your answer. Be very careful to indicate as much as possible of what empirical or other evidence there is to support your points. It is not necessary to come to a definite conclusion on the question: uncertainty having weighed the arguments and evidence is almost always an acceptable position. What is essential, however, is that you have given sufficient weight to arguments contrary to your own, with reasons to back up your rejection. Frequently questions require you to present and assess a number of viewpoints, indicated by such instructions as discuss, assess, how far is the case that†¦ etc. But it is always essential to consider what alternative interpretations to your own argument there might be. Source: Oxford University Press (Online Resource Centre) Requirements for the Award of 10 Credit Points In order to be awarded 10 credit points towards the completion of the Bachelors Degree in Social Work students must: Complete and submit a written assignment and gain a mark of at least 40%. Attend at least 80% of all lectures; and Attend at least 80% of all workshops. Students who fail to attend for the required number of lectures and tutorials, or who miss particularly crucial elements of the module, may be required to undertake additional work in order to be awarded credit points. LATE SUBMISSION OF COURSEWORK The Universitys rule is that for work submitted after the deadline, 5 percentage points per working day are deducted from the received mark up to a maximum of five days. Thereafter, the work receives zero. Extensions to essay deadlines are covered by a formal University procedure and may be granted on grounds of ill health or personal circumstances. You need to submit a completed Exemption from Late Coursework Marks Penalty Form (available from the Office, 6 College Park and on the Schools Website www.qub.ac.uk/soc ) within three days of the essay deadline. The form should be accompanied by a medical certificate (NOT self-certification) and/or other written supporting evidence and should be taken to the module convenor, preferably during his/her office hours, who decides whether or not to agree to an extension. Lecture Outlines Week 1 Introduction to Social Work and Criminal Justice history, context and settings Date: 22/09/09 Lecture: 10 1pm This lecture will provide an introduction to the module by outlining the role of social work in the criminal justice context. The first lecture will cover the history of social work within the criminal justice context and will explore theoretical perspectives on the intersection of social work and the criminal justice system. Particular consideration will be given to the role of the social worker within the parameters of the ‘care or ‘control debate. Some of the key phases of social work intervention in the criminal justice system will be explored ranging from original social work role as a ‘court missionary through to the current drive towards interventions based on the assessment of risk and ‘evidence based practice. Tutorial 25/09/09 (Group 1 (12-1) / Group 2 (1-2) Following from the introductory lecture, this tutorial will focus on some of the key paradigm shifts that have influenced the role of social work within the criminal justice context. Students will be encouraged to critically explore the role of social work within this setting. Key Reading Social Work in the Criminal Justice System History, Context and Settings Audit Commission (1989) Promoting Value for Money in the Probation Service, London: HMSO Brownlee, I. (1998) Community Punishment. A Critical Introduction. Essex: Longman Criminology Series Burnett, R. Roberts, C. (Ed.) (2004) What Works in Probation and Youth Justice Cullompton: Willan Chapman, T. and Hough, M. (1998) Evidence Based Practice, London: HMIP Farrant, F. (2006) ‘Knowledge production and the punishment ethic: The demise of the probation service. Probation Journal, 53,4: 317-333 Fulton, B. Parkhill, T. (2009) Making the Difference: an oral history of probation in Northern Ireland. Belfast: PBNI. Available at: http://www.pbni.org.uk/archive/Publications/Other%20Publications/pbni%2025th%20book.pdf Gorman, K. (2001) ‘Cognitive behaviourism and the search for the Holy Grail: The quest for a universal means of managing offender risk. Probation Journal, 48, 3: 3-9 Kemshall, H. (2002) ‘Effective practice in probation: An example of ‘Advanced Liberal responsibilisation? Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 41,1: 41-58 Lindsay, T. Quinn, K. (2001) ‘Fair Play in Northern Ireland: Towards Anti-Sectarian Practice. Probation Journal, 42, 2: 102-109 McKnight, J. (2009) ‘Speaking up for Probation Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 48,4: 327-343 Mair, G. (Ed.) (2004) What Matters in Probation Cullompton: Willan Merrington, S. and Stanley, S. (2000) ‘Reflections: doubts about the what works initiative, Probation Journal, 47, 4: 272-275 Robinson, G. Raynor, P. (2006) ‘The future of rehabilitation: What role for the probation service? Probation Journal, 53,4: 334-346 Vanstone, M. (2004) ‘Mission control: The origins of a humanitarian service. Probation Journal, 51, 1: 34-47 Week 2 Working with offending behaviour- Principles, Methods and Interventions Date: 29/09/09 Lecture: 10am -1pm Nicola Carr Lecture: 2pm -4pm Nicola Carr These lectures will focus on the development and use of community penalties. Students will learn about the development of the ‘what works initiative and the drive towards effective, evidence-based practice. Key issues such as risk management and public protection will be explored and students will be encouraged to critically evaluate these developments. Key developments in working with offenders will be outlined including some of the most recent methods of intervention based on research evidence. Key Reading Working with offending behaviour- Principles, Methods and Interventions Andrews, D., Bonta, J. and Hoge, R. (1990a) ‘Classification for effective rehabilitation, Criminal Justice and Behaviour, 17 ,1: 19-52. Andrews, D. et al. (1990b) ‘Does correctional treatment work? Criminology, 28, 369-404 Ansbro, M. (2008) ‘Using attachment theory with offenders. Probation Journal, 55,3: 231-244 Bailie, R. (2006) ‘Women Offenders: The Development of a Policy and Strategy for Implementation by the Probation Board for Northern Ireland Irish Probation Journal, 3, 1:97-110 Batchelor, S. (2004) ‘Prove me the bam! Victimization and agency in the lives of young women who commit violent offences. Probation Journal, 52, 4: 358-375 Bhui, H.S. Buchanan, J. (2004) ‘What Works? and complex individuality. Probation Journal, 51,3: 195-196 Bottoms, A. and Williams, W. (1979) ‘A non-treatment paradigm for probation practice British Journal of Social Work, 9,2: 160-201 Burnett R Roberts C (2004) What Works in Probation and Youth Justice, Developing Evidence Based Practice. Cullompton: Willan Burnett, R. McNeill, F. (2005) ‘The place of the officer-offender relationship in assisting offenders to desist from crime. Probation Journal, 52,3: 221-242 Bushway, S.D.; Thornberry, T.P. Krohn, M.D. (2003) ‘Desistance as a developmental process: A comparison of static and dynamic approaches. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 19, 2: 129-153 Cherry, S. (2005) Transforming Behaviour: Pro-social Modelling in Practice. Cullompton: Willan Dixon, L. Ray, L. (2007) ‘Current issues and developments in race hate crime Probation Journal, 54,2: 109-124 Farrall, S. Bowling, B. (1999) ‘Structuration, human development and desistance from crime. British Journal of Criminology 17, 2: 255-267 Farrall, S. (2002) Rethinking What Works with Offenders: Probation, Social Context and Desistance from Crime. Cullompton: Willan Healy, D. ODonnell, I. (2008) ‘Calling time on crime: Motivation, generativity and agency in Irish Probationers. Probation Journal, 55,1: 25-38 Jordan, R. OHare, G. (2007) ‘ The Probation Board for Northern Irelands Cognitive Self-Change Programme: An overview of the pilot programme in the community. Irish Probation Journal, 4,1: 125-136 Loughran, H. (2006) ‘A place for Motivational Interviewing in Probation? Irish Probation Journal, 3,1: 17-29 Martinson, R. (1974) ‘What works? Questions and answers about prison reform, ThePublic Interest, 10, 22-54 McCulloch, P. (2005) ‘Probation, social context and desistance: retracing the relationship. Probation Journal, 52,1: 8-22 McGuire, J. Priestly, P. (1995) ‘Reviewing â€Å"what works†: Past, present and future. In J. McGuire (Ed.) What Works in Reducing Re-offending. Sussex: Wiley McNeill, F. (2001) ‘Developing effectiveness: Frontline Perspectives, Social Work Education, 20,6: 671-678 McNeill, F. (2006) ‘A desistance paradigm for offender management Criminology and Criminal Justice, 6, 1: 39-62 McWilliams, W. (1987) ‘Probation, pragmatism and policy, Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 26,2:97-121 Maruna, S. (2001) Making Good: How Ex-Convicts Reform and Rebuild their Lives. Washington D.C. : American Psychological Association Maruna, S.; Immarigeon, R. LeBel, T.P. (2004) ‘Ex-offender Reintegration: Theory and Practice In: S. Maruna and R. Immarigeon (eds.) After Crime and Punishment: Pathways to Offender Integration, Cullompton: Willan Miller, W. Rollnick, S. (2006) Motivational Interviewing, Gilford Press, New York Raynor, P. Vanstone, M. (1994) ‘Probation practice, effectiveness and the non-treatment paradigm, British Journal of Social Work, 24,4: 387-404 Rex, S. (1999) ‘Desistance from offending: Experiences of probation, Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 38, 4: 366-383 Rex, S. Bottoms, A. (2003) ‘Evaluating the evaluators: Researching the accreditation of offender programmes. Probation Journal, 50,4: 359-368 Smith, D. (2004) ‘The uses and abuses of positivism, in G. Mair (Ed.) What Matters in Probation, Cullompton: Willan Vanstone, M. (2000) ‘Cognitive-behavioural work with offenders in the UK: a history of an influential endeavour, Howard Journal, 39,2: 171-183 Week 3 Assessment in criminal justice contexts Date: 06/10/09 Lecture: 10am 1pm Nicola Carr Assessing the risk of re-offending and the risk of harm is one of the core tasks of the social worker within the criminal justice system .This lecture will cover the background of assessment and some of the factors that impact on assessment. Particular attention will be paid to research evidence concerning, dynamic and static risk factors in relation to offending. In addition, attention will be paid to protective factors and research relating to desistance from crime. An overview will be provided of a range of risk assessment tools currently in use within the criminal justice system. Tutorial: 09/09/09(Group 1 (12-1) / Group 2 (1-2) Nicola Carr and Alan Harpur This tutorial will be in a workshop format and will focus on the use of risk assessment tools in relation to the assessment of the risk re-offending and risk of harm with the aim of planning interventions to address these areas. Assessment in criminal justice contexts Aye-Maung, N. Hammond, N. (2000) ‘Risk of re-offending and Needs Assessments: The Users Perspective. (Home Office Research Study 216). London: Home Office Best, P. (2007) ‘ The Assessment, Case Management and Evaluation System (ACE) in Northern Ireland. Irish Probation Journal, 4,1: 101-107 Kemshall, H. (1998) Risk in Probation Practice. Aldershot: Ashgate Kemshall, H. (2003) Understanding Risk in Criminal Justice. Berkshire: Open University Press Kemshall, H. (2008) Understanding the Management of High Risk Offenders. Berkshire: Open University Press Merrington, S. Skinns, J. (2002) ‘Using ACE to Profile Criminogenic Needs, Probation Studies Unit ACE Practitioner Bulletin No. 1, University of Oxford. Available at: http://www.crim.ox.ac.uk/publications/psubull1.pdf ODwyer, G. (2008) ‘A Risk Assessment and Risk Management Approach to Sexual Offending for the Probation Service. Irish Probation Journal, Vol. 5: 84-91 Robinson, G. (2002) ‘Exploring risk management in probation practice: contemporary developments in England and Wales. Punishment and Society, 4, 1: 5-25 Robinson, G. (2003) ‘Implementing OASys: lessons from research into LSI-R and ACE Probation Journal, 50, 1:30-40 Week 4 The impact of offending working with victims of crime and Restorative Justice approaches Date: 13/10/09 Lecture: 10am to 1pm Nicola Carr This lecture will address issues concerning the impact of crime, and will explore issues relating to victims of crime. The concept of the ‘victim of crime will be critically assessed with reference to a range of literature, and the victims role within the criminal justice system will be explored. The role of the Social Worker in working with victims of crime will also be analysed. The principles and practices of restorative justice approaches will be examined and explored specifically in relation to the Northern Ireland context. Lecture: 2pm to 4pm (Victim Panel Susan Reid, Victim Support, Northern Ireland and Christine Hunter, PBNI Victims Unit) The afternoon lecture will involve a panel presentation from representatives from two agencies working with victims of crime. The presenters will focus on particular issues and themes relating to their work and students will have an opportunity to discuss the issues raised. Victims and the Impact of Crime Hoyle, C. Zedner, L. (2007) ‘Victims, victimization and the criminal justice system. In M. Maguire; R. Morgan R. Reiner (Eds.) The Oxford Handbook of Criminology (Fourth Edition) Oxford: Oxford University Press Hunter, C. (2005) ‘The View of Victims of Crime on How the Probation Board for Northern Ireland Victim Information Scheme Might Operate Irish Probation Journal, 2,1: 43-47 Norton, S. (2007) ‘The place of victims in the Criminal Justice System. Irish Probation Journal, 4,1: 63-76 Williams, B. (2009) ‘Victims In: C. Hale; K, Hayward; A. Wahidin E. Wincup (Eds.) Criminology (Second Edition) Oxford: Oxford University Press Restorative Justice Braithwaite, J. (1989) Crime, Shame and Reintegration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Campbell C, Devlin R, OMahony D, Doak J (2005) Evaluation of the Northern Ireland Youth conferencing Service NIO Research and Statistical Series: Report No 12 Daly, K. (2002) ‘Restorative Justice: The real story Punishment and Society, 4,1: 55-79 Daly, K. Stubbs, J. (2006) ‘Feminist engagement with restorative justice. Theoretical Criminology, 10, 1: 9-28 Gelsthorpe, L. Morris, A. (2002) ‘Restorative youth justice. The last vestiges of welfare? In: J. Muncie; G. Hughes E. McLaughlin (Eds.) Youth Justice Critical Readings. London: Sage Gray, P. (2005) ‘The politics of risk and young offenders experiences of social exclusion and restorative justice. British Journal of Criminology, 45,6: 938-957 Hamill, H. (2002) ‘Victims of paramilitary Punishment Attacks in Belfast. In C. Hoyle R. Young (Eds.) New Visions of Crime Victims, 49-70., Oxford: Hart Hoyle, C. (2002) ‘Securing restorative justice for the â€Å"Non-Participating† Victim. In: In C. Hoyle R. Young (Eds.) New Visions of Crime Victims, 97-132., Oxford: Hart McEvoy, K. Mika, H. (2002) ‘ Restorative Justice and the critique of informalism in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Criminology, 42, 3: 534-562 McLaughlin, E.; Fergusson, R.; Hughes, G. Westmarland, L. Restorative Justice: Critical Issues London, Sage Marshall, T. (1999) Restorative Justice: An Overview. London: Home Office. Available at: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/occ-resjus.pdf Morris, A. (2002) ‘Critiquing the critics: A brief response to critics of restorative justice. British Journal of Criminology, 42,3: 596-615 OMahony, D. Doak, J. ‘Restorative Justice- Is More Better? The Experience of Police-led Restorative Justice in Northern Ireland The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, vol. 43, no. 5 Shapland, J.; Atkinson, A.; Atkinson, H.; Dignan, J.; Edwards, L; Hibbert, J. Howes, M.; Johnstone, J.; Robinson, G. Sorsby, A. (2008) Does restorative justice affect reconviction? The fourth report from the evaluation of three schemes. London: Ministry of Justice. Available at: http://www.justice.gov.uk/restorative-justice-report_06-08.pdf Zehr H Towes B (EDS) Critical Issues in Restorative Justice, Willan Publishing Week 5 Public Protection, Prisons and Resettlement Date: 20/10/09 Lecture: 10am to 1pm (Nicola Carr and Willie McAuley, PPNAI) Public protection has formed an important part of the work of criminal justice agencies in recent years. This lecture explores the ‘public protection discourse, and its practical implications in relation to new ‘public protection arrangements. The second part of this lecture will focus on the role of social work in relation to prisoners and their families and the role of resettlement. Tutorial: 23/09/09(Group 1 (12-1) / Group 2 (1-2) This tutorial will follow from this weeks lecture and address issues in relation to prisoners, the effects of imprisonment and resettlement. Public Protection, Prisons and Resettlement Burnett, R. Maruna, S. (2006) ‘The kindness of prisoners: Strengths-based resettlement in theory and action. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 6, 1: 83-106 Corcoran, M. (2007) ‘Normalisation and its discontents: Constructing the ‘irreconcilable female political prisoner in Northern Ireland. British Journal of Criminology, 47,3: 405-422 Her Majestys Inspectorates of Prison and Probation (2001) Through the Prison Gate: A Joint Thematic Review. London: Home Office. Available at: http://www.justice.gov.uk/inspectorates/hmi-prisons/docs/prison-gate-rps.pdf Kemshall, H. (1996) Reviewing Risk: A review of the research on the assessment and management of risk and dangerousness: Implications for policy and practice in the Probation Service. London: Home Office Kemshall, H. Maguire, M. (2001) ‘Public Protection, partnership and risk penality: The Multi-Agency risk management of sexual and violent offenders. Punishment and Society, 3,2: 237-264 Lewis, S.; Vennard, J.; Maguire, M.; Raynor, P.; Vanstone, M.; Raybould, S. Rix, A. (2003) The Resettlement of short-term prisoners: an evaluation of seven pathfinders. London: Home Office. Available at: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/occ83pathfinders.pdf McEvoy, K.; Shirlow, P. McElrath, K. (2004) ‘Resistance, transition and exclusion: Politically motivated ex-prisoners and conflict transformation in Northern Ireland. Terrorism and Political Violence, 16, 3: 646-670 Maguire, M. Raynor, P. (2006) ‘How the resettlement of prisoners promotes desistance from crime: Or does it? Criminology and Criminal Justice, 6, 1:19-38 Maruna, S. Liebling, A. (2004) The Effects of Imprisonment. Cullompton: Willan Matthews, R. (2009) ‘Prisons in C. Hale; K, Hayward; A. Wahidin E. Wincup (Eds.) Criminology (Second Edition) Oxford: Oxford University Press Public Protection Arrangements Northern Ireland (PPANI) Guidance to Agencies. Belfast: Northern Ireland Office. Available at: http://www.publicprotectionni.com/ Scraton, P. Moore, L. (2004) The Hurt Inside. The Imprisonment of women and girls in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission. Available at: http://www.statewatch.org/news/2004/oct/the-hurt-inside-nihrc.pdf Scraton, P. Moore, L. (2005) ‘Degradation, harm and survival in a womens prison. Social Policy and Society, 5, 1: 67-7 Wahidin, A. (2009) ‘Ageing in prison: crime and the criminal justice system. In: C. Hale; K, Hayward; A. Wahidin E. Wincup (Eds.) Criminology (Second Edition) Oxford: Oxford University Press. Week 6: Working with young people in the criminal justice system balancing welfare and justice? Date: 27/10/09 Lecture: 10am to 1pm Nicola Carr Working with young people who are involved in the criminal justice system involves addressing the context of offending and the welfare needs of the young person. This lecture will cover the theories and practices that inform this work, with reference to research literature and the current system and policy context in Northern Ireland. Lecture: 2pm to 4pm (Kelvin Doherty, Youth Justice Agency) The afternoon lecture will be delivered by Kelvin Doherty, from the Youth Justice Agency, who will provide an overview of the youth conferencing service in Northern Ireland. The lecture will focus on the aims, rationale and operation of youth conferences through an interactive session. Working with Young People in the Criminal Justice System Campbell, C.; Devlin, R.; OMahony, D.; Doak, J.; Jackson, J.; Corrigan, T. McEvoy, K. (2006) Evaluation of the Northern Ireland Youth Conference Service. Belfast: Northern Ireland Office. Available: http://www.nio.gov.uk/evaluation_of_the_northern_ireland_youth_conference_service.pdf Ellison, G. (2001) Young People, Crime, Policing and Victimisation in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Institute of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Queens University. Available at: http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/police/ellison00.htm Graham, J. Bowling, B. (1995) Young People and Crime (Home Office Research Study No. 145), London: Home Office Hamilton, J.; Radford, K. Jarman, N. (2003) Policing, Accountability and Young People. Belfast: Institute for Conflict Research. Available at: http://www.conflictresearch.org.uk/documents/policeyp.pdf Include Youth (2008) A Manifesto for Youth Justice in Northern Ireland. Belfast: Include Youth. Available at: http://www.includeyouth.org/fs/doc/Include-Youth-Manifesto-2008.pdf Leonard, M. (2004) Children in Interface Areas: Reflections from North Belfast. Belfast: Save the Children Muncie, J. (2004) Youth and Crime (Second Edition) London: Sage NICCY (2008) Children in Conflict with the Law and the Administration of Juvenile Justice. Belfast: NICCY. Available at: http://www.niccy.org/uploaded_docs/1_71784_NIC71784%20Childrens%20Rights%20Text%208.pdf

The Wind in the Willows: Kenneth Grahame and Neopaganism Essay

The Wind in the Willows: Kenneth Grahame and Neopaganism  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   The beauty of the English countryside--cultivated or wild, pastoral or primeval, it was an endless source of inspiration for eighteenth-century Romantic poets. Such notables as Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley envisioned ancient and exotic Hellenic gods in familiar, typically British settings. Douglas Bush says of Keats, "For him the common sights of Hampstead Heath could suggest how poets had first conceived of fauns and dryads, of Psyche and Pan and Narcissus and Endymion" ( Pagan Myth 46). Later writers, clearly influenced by the Romantic world view, would describe idealized pastoral scenes in terms of "the rich meadow-grass . . . of a freshness and a greenness unsurpassable . . . . the roses so vivid, the willow-herb so riotous . . ." (Grahame, Wind 911). This was the haunt of Nature personified: Then suddenly the Mole felt a great Awe fall upon him, an awe that turned his muscles to water, bowed his head, and rooted his feet to the ground. It was no panic terror-- indeed he felt wonderfully at peace and happy . . . he looked in the very eyes of the Friend and Helper; saw the backward sweep of the curved horns, gleaming in the growing daylight; saw the stern, hooked nose between the kindly eyes that were looking down on them humorously, while the bearded mouth broke into a half-smile at the corners; saw the rippling muscles on the arm that lay across the broad chest, the long supple hand still holding the pan-pipes only just fallen away from the parted lips; saw the splendid curves of the shaggy limbs disposed in majestic ease on the sward . . . . (912] Pan's appearance in "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" constitutes my most vivid impressio... ...dence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle . Princeton: Princeton UP, 1986. Grahame, Kenneth. Pagan Papers . 5th ed. 1898. London: Lane, 1914. ---. The Wind in the Willows . 1908. Classics of Children's Literature . Ed. John W. Griffith and Charles H. Frey. 4th ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice, 1996. 865-957. "Grahame, Kenneth." Yesterday's Authors of Books for Children . Ed. Anne Commire. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 1977. 144-153. Green, Peter. Kenneth Grahame: A Biography . Cleveland: World, 1959. "Kenneth Grahame." Children's Literature Review . Ed. Gerard J. Senick. Vol. 5. Detroit: Gale, 1983. 109-136. Sale, Roger. "Kenneth Grahame." Fairy Tales and After . Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1978. 165-193. Wullschlager, Jackie. "Kenneth Grahame: Et in Arcadia Ego." Inventing Wonderland . New York: Free P, 1995. 143-174.   

a post-modern analysis of women in the new east Essay -- essays rese

A Post-Modern Analysis of Women in the New East Good intentions do not beget positive results. Indeed what may seem to be good from one perspective may be seen as the complete opposite from another. Case in point: Western Feminism. To prove my point I will analyze the work of Ruth Frances Woodsmall, Women and the New East, written in 1960 as a feminist work, from a post-modern feminist perspective, and using works from Coco Fusco (English Broken Here) and Trinh Minh-ha (Women Native Other). One of the first problems encountered in Woodsmall’s work is in the delineation of her methodology. She writes that she began her study for each country with, â€Å"†¦the selection of a number of women leaders as advisers on the study as a whole and on specific phases†¦ The individual advisers were very helpful in making contacts, in giving advice about special interviews, suggesting institutions and projects and interpreting the general situation.† (viii) These women that she chose as her starting point from were most likely how many of the other informants and sources of information were found and therefore must have had a serious affect on the results of her research. These women are leaders, and therefore not accurate representations of the average women of Turkey. Indeed in the biographical appendix Woodsmall lists some of these leaders and not only do they all have â€Å"careers†, but they are all centered in military or scientific areas – not exactly a cross section of any society. This means much of this work was funneled through one class, and Fusco in her work exemplifies how class can make a difference in cultural views. â€Å"The reactions of Latin Americans differed according to class. Many upper class Latin American tourists †¦ voiced disgust that their part of the world should be represented in such a debased manner. Many other Latin Americans and Native Americans immediately recognized the symbolic significance of the piece, expressing solidarity with us†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (56) This means that what Woodsmall really wrote about was Westernized women in the new East. This was not a view of all the women in the Muslim world and India as Woodsmall attains, but just those that had been educated and influenced by the West. In the section entitled â€Å"Political Status†, Woodsmall delineates the â€Å"progress† of Turkish women in attainment of equal political rights when she writes, â€Å"The number of wome... ...rely present in its absence. Subject of discussion, â€Å"them† is only admitted among â€Å"us,† the discussing subjects, when accompanied or introduced by an â€Å"us,† member†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (67) Minh-ha is arguing that third-world non-Westernized feminists have been left out of the analysis of their own lives and societies. It is from this non-acceptance of the voice of the third world feminist, that Western feminism has served to colonize and dehumanize women of the third world rather than help them. It is precisely this point, which proves the argument of this paper. The well intentioned attempt of Western feminist to write a feminist book in order to help, both women in the East in an exchange of ideas and stimulation of still more ideas and women in the West in providing knowledge with which to further aid the women of the East. On both counts it fails. In the West it gives further ground to the false generalizations and assumptions of women in the Muslim and more generally the developing world who are seen as oppressed and in need of â€Å"liberation† while in the East it serves to colonize and dehumanize the women. These good intentions did not create what can be construed as a positive contribution.

Advertisements Essay example -- essays papers

Advertisements Car safety is an issue that concerns people across the Nation. Millions of Americans die each year due to fatal car accidents. The demand for safer automobiles is ever increasing. The Saturn Corporation recognizes this demand and has begun focusing its advertisements on America's need to feel safe. Saturn brings together setting, color, and a main focus to create the image of a safe car company. In one particular Saturn ad, a Saturn worker stands in a room surrounded by crash test dummies. The dummies in the background are stacked in a cluttered way. The piles of test dummies in the are meant to symbolize bodies. Saturn knows that the reader won't see inanimate objects, but actual human beings, because that is what the dummies are meant to portray. The rea...

Freedom of Contract in English Law

In earlier days, agreement was built on a very classic and simple basis: it is concluded at the moment that the acceptance of an offer takes place and that is all. In consequence, equal parties were non-existent and stronger parties had the possibility to impose unfair and domineering conditions upon those who were weak and vulnerable. It is in this context that both legislations and courts agreed that State action was indispensable to ensure fairness among individual parties, in an era where the exercise of law of freedom were extremely restricted.In today’s English law, freedom of contract is one the foundation of contract law. The existence of freedom of contract requires three main considerations: the freedom to contract or not to contract, the freedom to choose with whom to contract, and the freedom to decide the terms of the contract. Thus parties are totally free to engage or not to engage in agreements. However, freedom of contract can fail to have the desired or expec ted effect in contracts where power relations are not equal. The stronger party can impose its â€Å"will† to the weaker party.In order to deal with any potential conflict that can arise from this matter, English legal systems has set up rules ensuring the effective and fair exercise of freedom of contract. This essay will discuss and examine those rules in question, established by the English law in order to effectively balance freedom of contract and fairness between the contracting parties as well as fair contractual terms. And also on the other hand limits of freedom of contract will be exposed. Freedom of contract, as its appellation suggests, has a strong relationship with contract.In order to identify this relationship, it is important to understand what is meant by â€Å"contract† and the rules governing it. In English law, a contract is a legally binding agreement reached on a set of promises (or obligations) and specific terms. The validity of any contract re quires 4 main features: an offer, acceptance, consideration and intention to create legal relations. Thus, when one party (the offeror) makes an offer which the other (offeree) accepts, then agreement is concluded.However, the mere fact of an agreement is insufficient for a contract to be completely valid. This implies that a party must promise to give or do something for the other. This idea of exchanging promises is known as â€Å"consideration† and is an essential requisite of any valid contract. In Currie v Misa(1875) it (consideration) was held to constitute a benefit to one party or a detriment to the other. For instance, when a bottle of wine is bought from a shop, the benefit received is the bottle of wine, and the detriment is the money paid to the shop.Yet it is important to take into concern the rules governing consideration. First of all, consideration must not be in the past(as mentioned in the a. This rule suggests that if one party willingly performs an act, an d the other party then makes a promise the consideration said to be in the past. Therefore past consideration is regarded as no consideration at all. For instance, a pregnant woman named Julie, knowing that her neighbour, Lucy, is concerned about her health, offers to do the housework for her.This takes Lucy tremendous amount of time to do, and Julie is so content with the result that she promises to pay Lucy ? 30 for her effort. If Julie fails to pay, Lucy will not have the possibility to sue for breach of contract as Julie's promise to pay was after the completion of the work. The fact of this case is supported by the case of Re McArdle(1951,CA) in which it was held that no valid contract existed since the home improvements were past consideration; they had been carried out before any promise to pay had been made.Another rule is that consideration must move from the promisee which is very similar to the concept of law of privity. So for instance if A makes a promises to B, the pro mise will only be enforceable if B can equally show that he has provided consideration for A’s promise. This rule clearly demonstrates the fairness (among parties) of the doctrine of consideration. Finally, consideration must be sufficient but need not to be adequate. This rule stipulates that a good consideration must be of some value but there is not necessity for a bargain to be of adequate value.For example, if someone is willing to sell his Ferrari for ? 1, the contract will not be in vain due to lack of consideration and therefore will be sufficient. In this case, Courts will not measure the adequacy of the consideration (the fact that a Ferrari is offered to be sold at only ? 1) as it is up to one party to decide whether or not he agrees with the other party promises. The contract in English law enhances principle of freedom of contract.Indeed, the terms of the contract is freely determined and agreed by the parties. However, there are various circumstances in which ad ditional terms may be implied into the agreement. The aim of implied terms is often to provide a supplement to a contractual agreement in the interest of making bargain more effective, to achieve fairness between the parties and to alleviate hardship. Term may be implied by custom. Here it is suggested that a contract must always be examined in the light of its surrounding commercial context.So the parties automatically assume that sometimes their contract will be subject to the customs of a particular locality or trade and therefore do not deal specifically with the matter in their contract. One of the cases illustrating this is Hutton v Warren(1836). A term may equally be implied into a contract y Act of Parliament in the form of statutes. Under the Sale of Goods Act 1979, ss 12-15 for instance, a seller automatically assumes certain obligations to the buyer as a result of terms which are automatically implied in every contract regulated by the Act.The seller is required by statut e to promise that he has lawful authority to transfer ownership of the goods(s12)(the seller would for example break this term if it turns out that the goods were stolen);that the goods being sold will match the description he provided the buyer(s13)(for instance a shirt described as 100 per cent cotton should not contain man-made fibres); that the quality of the goods being sold will satisfy the buyer(s14(2)); that the good will be suitable for any purpose specified by the buyer(s 14(3)); and that the goods being sold will match any sample shown to the buyer prior to the contract being made(s 15).Breach of any of these terms will put the buyer in a strong position and be given the option to be discharged from the contract or alternatively carry on with the contract and claim damages for the breach. This will lead us to the concept of remedies mentioned in the following part. In English contract law, a crucial aspect of the contractual relationship is the enforcement of the contract , as the obligation that pact must be kept firmly by parties is considered as the backbone of any contractual relationship.However, a problem can occur if a contract is not adequately performed and one of the parties renounces to perform its obligations. This is where the concept of non-performance and the remedies available to the injured party become applicable. Breach of contract arises from the non-respect of the pact (or terms) agreed between parties. The aggrieved party is then given the common law right to claim for a remedy resulting from any quantifiable loss or harm suffered. Damage (financial compensation) is the most basic remedy available to the innocent party.In today business environment, it is not rare for the parties to agree in advance the damages that will be payable in the occurrence of a breach of contract. These damages are referred to as liquidated damages. An illustration of liquidated damages is the charges imposed for cancelling a flight or the booking of a hotel room. But sometimes, there is a temptation for a party with stronger trading power to try imposing a penalty clause (punitive payment for the non-performance of a term or condition) as demonstrated in Wilson v. Love (1896) case.Other remedies such as quantum damages and injunction may be granted at the discretion of the court as part of its equitable jurisdiction. So, as mentioned above, remedies is all about compensating the aggrieved party for causing him loss or harm. This can be avoided by the consideration of the prevailing rules of freedom of contract. In other words, Freedom of contract allowing individual parties to freely contract or not to, and no one being forced to do it , whoever therefore who gives a contractual promise must then keep it.Or on the contrary case, as described in earlier parts can be constrained by legal authorities to honour its commitment or compensate the other party. However, performance of a contract becomes sometimes impossible due to the ci rcumstances beyond the control of either of the parties and not due to their fault. The legal term referring to this situation is frustration. An example of this unforeseen event is illustrated in the case of Taylor v Caldwell (1863) in which it was held that contract was impossible to perform due to an external and unforeseen event.Consequences are that the contract is killed and parties discharged from further liability. This limits the exercise of freedom of contract in a sense that the agreement formed by the parties is nullified, regardless individual parties will. Another limitation of freedom of contract is that the choice of other contracting party is not always free. For example, an employer is not totally free to hire the person of his choice. The fact that insurance contracts are sometimes made obligatory by parties equally render the exercise of freedom of contract limited, as concerned parties did not freely choose to contract with an insurance company.So far, this pap er has been about the relationship between the exercise of freedom of contract and law of contract. However not only is freedom of contract concerned with contract law but also with another component of the English private law, which is tort law. A tort is a civil wrong. In other words, it refers to the liability of a person who causes harm to another with the obligation to repair the damages suffered by the victim. An example of tort is damage to commercial interests, e. g. inducement of breach of contract.Also known as tortious interference, inducement of breach of contract arise where the wrongdoer convinces a party to breach the contract against the claimant, or where the wrongdoer prevents one party from performing his obligations(agreed with the other party), thus stopping the claimant from receiving the performance promised. Furthermore, after mentioning the existence of a duty of care, which is an element required making negligence claim (concerned with a wrongdoer’s careless conduct which cause damage or loss to the defendant), the claimant (the injured party) can prove that this duty has been broken by the defendant (the other party).Hence the close relationship between duty of care and the requisites of freedom of contract in the sense that if parties freely agree to contract (including the terms of it), then, it is suggested, that they owe a duty of care to each other because the careless conduct (which can affect the contract) of one party can prevent the other one from receiving the performance promised, regardless to the external factor that caused the misconduct of the blamed party. This fact is supported by the case of Garret v.Taylor (1620) in which the court upheld a judgment for the claimant. To conclude, the purpose of this essay has been to describe and make a connection between law of contract as well as law of torts and freedom of contract. Thus, English legal systems have established multiple rules of conduct from different part ies to a contract in order to ensure fairness between them. Henceforth, contracting parties are given freedom to contract with whoever they want, including the terms of the contracts.Also, thanks to rules such as of duty of care, or of doctrine of remedies, an injured party is now given the possibility to claim for compensation of loss or harm caused by the blamed party, who will be then obliged by legal authorities to repair the damages caused to the aggrieved party due to non-respect of the rules established. In the end, it must be acknowledge that English Law has stroke an appropriate balance between freedom of contract and fairness. References:Currie v Misa (1875) LR 10 Ex 153; (1875-76) LR 1 App Cas 554:Definition of consideration Garret v. Taylor, 79 Eng. Rep. 485 (K. B. 1620): Tortious interference Hutton v Warren (1836) 1 M;W 460:Implied terms Re McArdle(1951,CA ):Past consideration being unacceptable Sale of Goods Act 1979, ss 12-15 : Statutory implied terms Taylor v Caldwe ll (1863) 3 B ; S 826; 122 ER 309; [1863] EWHC QB J1: impossibility of performance of contract Wilson v. Love (1896) : Liquidated damages

Action Genre

The action genre is a genre wherein physical action takes precedence in the storytelling. Also, action movies often have continuous motions and actions including physical stunts, chases, fights, battles, and races. The story usually revolves around a hero that has a goal but is facing incredible odds to obtain it. While the action genre has a long recurring component in films, the action film genre began to develop in the 1970s along with the increase of stunts and special effects.Audiovisual Translation (AVT)According to Zobalbeascoa (2008), an audiovisual text is a mode of communication that is distinct from the written and the oral mode, although it may not be easy to draw a clear borderline between the audiovisual and other modes (p.29). And, other scholars like Bartrina (2004) believes that â€Å"in using the term audiovisual texts we receive via two channels, the visual and acoustic such texts contain images that move rapidly one after another† (p.157). Unlike communication through books, radio, telephone or sign language, audiovisual communication implies that the acoustic channel through air vibrations and the visual channel through light waves are simultaneously utilized. In other words, the film establishes a multi-channel and multi-code communication that take place through two channels (visual channel and acoustic channel) except for silent movies, but other communications, like radio and books, oppositely take place through one channel (only acoustic channel) (Delabastita, 2008). Finally, Gambier (1994) states that â€Å"audiovisual translation is a new genre in the realm of translation studies and several forms of translation take place in the international world of audiovisual communication† (p.277).IdeologyThe concept of ideology in translation studies is as old as the history of translation itself. And, according to Fawcett (1998), â€Å"throughout the centuries, individuals and institutions applied their particular beliefs to the production of certain effect in translation and an ideological approach to translation studies could be found in some of the earliest examples of translation known to us† (p. 106). However, Venuti (1998) states that â€Å"the linguistics-oriented approaches to translation studies have failed to address the concept of ideology through years of their prevalence, because such approaches are limited to their scientific models for research and the empirical data they collect, so that they remain reluctant to take into account the social values that enter into translating as well as the study of it† (p.1). Finally, ideology viewed in a more positive sense as a vehicle to promote or legitimate interests of a particular social group rather than a means to destroy the contenders (Calzada-Perez, 2003, p. 5).NormsAccording to Maylaerts (2008), quoted from Schaffner, (1998) norms are the translation of general values or ideas shared by a community into performance instructions applicable to particular situations. Norms specify what is prescribed and forbidden as well as what is tolerated and permitted in translation. Therefore, they imply sanctions, positive or negative. This means that norms imply a degree of social and psychological pressure since the concept of the norm has been used differently in translation studies, and its value has been both asserted strongly and called into question. Also, Toury (1995) maintains that â€Å"norms are the translation of what is wrong or right† (p.55). And, Munday (2012) believes that â€Å"norms are components peculiar to cultures, societies, and time being socio-cultural limitations which are acquired by persons during the educational and socializing processes† (p.112). Norms do not apply only in language, but also at all levels of our social lives, and it varies from one community or culture to another culture (Snell-Hornby, 1988). While, Pym (1999) discerns that â€Å"norms exist and they will change by means of beliefs, reasons, technology or creativity† (p.106). Norms of a society determine how taboo words and expressions dealt with in that given society. Finally, there are four types of norms:1) obligated 2) Permitted 3) Tolerated 4) Prohibited. In Islamic societies such as Iran, there exists a fifth norm which is recommended. Based on this, taboos are either tolerated or to a much greater degree prohibited.SubtitleSubtitles usually located at the bottom of the screen, either left-aligned or centered. They must be in 1 to 2 lines, not more than 35 characters and yellow or white font colors on the dark ground are preferred (Schwarz, 2002). And, according to Gottlibe (1997), subtitling as a translation practice has special features that they are as follow: a) written, b) additive, c) immediate, d) synchronous, e) polymedia (p.2). Cintas (2008) states that â€Å"subtitles considered as captions and transcriptions of a movie or TV dialogue in a same or different language and presented simultaneously on the screen at the bottom. They should be placed at the bottom of the screen in order to not interrupt the image action† (p.7).Taboo ConceptsFromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2013) believe that â€Å"taboo has a strong cultural component that representing particular customs and the way people view their society† (p.112). Also, taboo terms actually are a broad term that has been approached by various disciplines from different standpoints. Throughout the years, there have been controversies about the scope of the term as well as various notions with regard to their function and role within the societies. Since the concept itself is multidimensional and highly culture-specific, what taboos cover often differs from one culture to another. Therefore, it seems to be no common ground reached regarding the issues dealt with under the title of taboo. In fact, the concept plays a central role in forming the cultures which considered as the main reason why so many disciplines are interested in theorizing it (Horlacher, 2010, p. 5). Finally, according to Wardhaugh (1990), the taboo is one way in which a society expresses its disapproval of certain kinds of behaviors that are harmful to its members either for supernatural reasons or such behaviors are held to violate a moral code (p.230).The Related Works in Iran and Other CountriesAmong the Works Applied in the Field of Translation of Taboo Terms and Concepts in Iran: Azardashti (2013) in an article titled as â€Å"Normative Attitude Toward Translation of Verbal Taboo† in The Catcher in the Rye has noted that different societies and cultures, particularly more traditional societies such as Iran dislike raising unusual subjects such as slangs and examining slangs in scientific areas have been always concealed. In spite of some researches in this regard over recent years' ambiguities and intact angles regarding translating slangs into Persian still attracted attention. In view of the importance of verbal taboos as an inevitable part of the language and its difficulty for translators in encountering with them the importance of this study would be revealed. Finally, Ghazizadeh and Mardani (2012) in their study titled as â€Å"Strategic Examination of Translator in Translating Western Taboo in Dubbing English Movies into Farsi† have pointed out language in the same extent can be used for expressing thoughts and communicating that can be used as a tool for obstructing propagation of certain opinions too. For example, taboo terms derive from the ideology and a set of beliefs of different nations about certain contents which they transfer in the process of translation give rise to lingual and cultural problems. Since cinema products are among main tracts of transferring culture components such as taboo, the matter of translating such products in the form of subtitle or dubbing is of high importance. Yet fewer studies have been conducted in this regard. In the current study it has been attempted that through a descriptive study of dubbing English movies into Farsi, translator's strategies are examined in translating the language and cultural Western taboo terms and concepts. The results of their research revealed that the most common strategies regarding language taboo expressions are finding equivalent for them, compensating and for cultural taboo, those are manipulating, modification and using non-taboo equivalents. Among the Works Applied in the Field of Translation of Taboo Terms and Concepts in Abroad: Midjord (2013) in her M.A. thesis titled as â€Å"On the Subtitling of Swear Words: The Case Study of Flickering Lights† with a special focus on the translation of the word fuck as an interest in exploring how the swear words are translated in the process of subtitling from Danish into English. The results of her study revealed that in English speaking countries the most frequently used swear words derive from the religion, sex and bodily effluvia, while in the Danish language the most frequently used swear words derive from the religion, diseases, sex and bodily effluvia. Moreover, the analysis showed that many swear words have either been translated directly or deleted completely in the subtitles. With more than half of the swear words deleted in the target text, it can be discussed, whether there is a loss of the understanding of the environment and the characters' personalities in the film. However, on the basis of reviews from English speaking persons, this does not seem to have been a problem, which could indicate that the subtitler has made the right choices in the subtitling of the swear words in Flickering Lights movie.